Exploring the Current Landscape of Developmental, Reflective and Representational Student E-Portfolios:
A Review of the Literature
Heidi Bird
Pepperdine University
Master of Arts in Learning Technology
Introduction
The use of portfolios as a tool to assess student success and capability has a long history in education. Portfolios have been used in a myriad of situations in the academic setting. Students use them as a showcase of their work for teacher and parent review, college preparation, and career preparation. While print portfolios are private and only available for one reader at a time, current literature suggests that transitioning from traditional portfolios to e-portfolios allows creators to showcase their skills to a much broader audience by making use of dynamic web-based software. Using software online allows complete creative control of functionality and design. E-portfolios also boast vast amounts of storage, access, management, interactivity, and real-time functionality. Knight, Hakel, and Gromko (2008) conducted a study examining the relationship between e-portfolio participation and student success. Despite some limitations, their current study has demonstrated that undergraduate students who created e-portfolios had significantly higher grade point averages, credit hours earned, and retention rates than a matched set of students who had not.
The landscape in which e-portfolios are being developed and showcased in education is constantly evolving with the current use of Web 2.0 tools. Currently, these e-portfolios can take many forms: websites, blogs, Tumblr pages, YouTube videos, or vlogs (video blogs). Student e-portfolios are created by collecting artifacts from academic experiences and then presenting them digitally. A profusion of tools can showcase these artifacts in impressive ways that may set students apart from test scores or grade point averages.
This literature review will support Villano’s (2006) claim that the current use of e-portfolios in education falls into three broad categories: developmental, reflective, and representational. This literature review defines and examines the most effective use of each of these categories of e-portfolios on the current literature. This review aims to establish an understanding of what characteristics can create effective e-portfolios and mindfully apply these characteristics that can assist others in creating their own e-portfolios for educational or career use.
The landscape in which e-portfolios are being developed and showcased in education is constantly evolving with the current use of Web 2.0 tools. Currently, these e-portfolios can take many forms: websites, blogs, Tumblr pages, YouTube videos, or vlogs (video blogs). Student e-portfolios are created by collecting artifacts from academic experiences and then presenting them digitally. A profusion of tools can showcase these artifacts in impressive ways that may set students apart from test scores or grade point averages.
This literature review will support Villano’s (2006) claim that the current use of e-portfolios in education falls into three broad categories: developmental, reflective, and representational. This literature review defines and examines the most effective use of each of these categories of e-portfolios on the current literature. This review aims to establish an understanding of what characteristics can create effective e-portfolios and mindfully apply these characteristics that can assist others in creating their own e-portfolios for educational or career use.
Developmental E-Portfolios in education
Developmental e-portfolios serve as a selective and purposeful collection of a person’s creative output of work and ideas and as a tool to help the student be unique and distinctive. Creating portfolios allows authors the ability to plan, assess, and reflect upon their learning and their body of work during a specific period of time. A developmental portfolio stores information and represents their growth, accomplishments, and reflections. These digital collections of work are a rapidly emerging, powerful, interactive mode for capturing student work and enabling faculty to assess student learning (Whitworth, J., Deering, T., Hardy, S., & Jones, S., 2011). E-portfolios provide multidimensional assessment data to present the student’s learning process while allowing students to explore the digital world. As students become more comfortable in the digital world, they are easily able to collect, store, and share information. In turn, educators have responded by increasingly using technology in teaching (Rhodes, 2011).
Increasingly, educational institutions are encouraging, or even requiring, students to create their own personal e-portfolios as a repository for demonstrating accomplishments and activities (Young, 2002). In a time when standardized testing has become an integral focus in K-12 education, there is a need for demonstration of a much broader array of learning outcomes. These include personal and social responsibility, teamwork, intercultural knowledge and competence, and integrative learning (Rhodes, 2011). E-portfolios meet this need by enabling students to improve and focus their learning and provide them with a tool to showcase their skills in personal ways, getting away from being defined simply by their test scores. Cambridge (2008) reported that e-portfolios are more flexible than standardized testing and more easily comparable across a program or institution than the results of authentic assessments at the course level, such as papers, projects, and exams. A portfolio of assignments over a specified period of time allows a student to be evaluated more appropriately and objectively by allowing students to integrate a large sampling of work in a course. This sampling allows students to connect new ideas with the student’s existing knowledge and context. In fact, Mason, Pegler & Weller (2004) argued that student ownership of their e-portfolio and their choice of artifacts to include make the creative process a truly learning-centered activity.
At the college level, e-portfolios are increasingly being used to track progress toward general education outcomes. Advocates of this approach see e-portfolios as easily comparable across a program or institution than the results of authentic assessments at the course level, such as papers, projects, and exams (Cambridge, 2008). Tubaishat and Akram (2009) explained that in recent years, colleges and universities have been seeking alternative avenues to provide an attractive curriculum that integrates technology in order to meet requirements of regional and professional accrediting organizations. Many higher education institutions have adopted an outcome-based educational model to move away from the GPA driven model. They also explain that outcome-based education is a method of education that focuses on what students can actually do after they are taught a particular subject. All curriculum and teaching decisions are made based on how to best facilitate the achievement of a desired outcome.
Tubaishat & Akram (2009) also argued that e-portfolios are an effective tool for faculty to better manage, review, reflect, and comment on student work. Because of these advantages, teachers and institutions spend valuable time and financial resources on e-portfolio implementation and development. However, research suggests that most student e-portfolios represent only a limited period of time. For instance, Shepherd & Hannafin (2008) surveyed seventeen student teachers who had created e-portfolios as a requirement for graduation, finding that the development of e-portfolios benefitted their teacher preparation. Creating e-portfolios encouraged them to consider alternative viewpoints, reflect deeply on teaching experiences and form goals. However, the participating students did not anticipate using them in future employment situations because of time constraints, lack of incentives, and conflicting institutional interests.
Increasingly, educational institutions are encouraging, or even requiring, students to create their own personal e-portfolios as a repository for demonstrating accomplishments and activities (Young, 2002). In a time when standardized testing has become an integral focus in K-12 education, there is a need for demonstration of a much broader array of learning outcomes. These include personal and social responsibility, teamwork, intercultural knowledge and competence, and integrative learning (Rhodes, 2011). E-portfolios meet this need by enabling students to improve and focus their learning and provide them with a tool to showcase their skills in personal ways, getting away from being defined simply by their test scores. Cambridge (2008) reported that e-portfolios are more flexible than standardized testing and more easily comparable across a program or institution than the results of authentic assessments at the course level, such as papers, projects, and exams. A portfolio of assignments over a specified period of time allows a student to be evaluated more appropriately and objectively by allowing students to integrate a large sampling of work in a course. This sampling allows students to connect new ideas with the student’s existing knowledge and context. In fact, Mason, Pegler & Weller (2004) argued that student ownership of their e-portfolio and their choice of artifacts to include make the creative process a truly learning-centered activity.
At the college level, e-portfolios are increasingly being used to track progress toward general education outcomes. Advocates of this approach see e-portfolios as easily comparable across a program or institution than the results of authentic assessments at the course level, such as papers, projects, and exams (Cambridge, 2008). Tubaishat and Akram (2009) explained that in recent years, colleges and universities have been seeking alternative avenues to provide an attractive curriculum that integrates technology in order to meet requirements of regional and professional accrediting organizations. Many higher education institutions have adopted an outcome-based educational model to move away from the GPA driven model. They also explain that outcome-based education is a method of education that focuses on what students can actually do after they are taught a particular subject. All curriculum and teaching decisions are made based on how to best facilitate the achievement of a desired outcome.
Tubaishat & Akram (2009) also argued that e-portfolios are an effective tool for faculty to better manage, review, reflect, and comment on student work. Because of these advantages, teachers and institutions spend valuable time and financial resources on e-portfolio implementation and development. However, research suggests that most student e-portfolios represent only a limited period of time. For instance, Shepherd & Hannafin (2008) surveyed seventeen student teachers who had created e-portfolios as a requirement for graduation, finding that the development of e-portfolios benefitted their teacher preparation. Creating e-portfolios encouraged them to consider alternative viewpoints, reflect deeply on teaching experiences and form goals. However, the participating students did not anticipate using them in future employment situations because of time constraints, lack of incentives, and conflicting institutional interests.
Reflective E-Portfolios in Education
While developmental e-portfolios have long received attention as an effective type of student assessment and as a way to capture a snapshot of a student’s learning process, there is growing concern that reflection about the learning process is being lost in favor of meeting requirements to earn grades. To address this concern, some researchers are turning their attention to reflective e-portfolios. Rather than an assessment of learning, reflective e-portfolios provide assessment for learning. They provide students with the opportunity to reflect and thus enable them to better understand their own learning, painting a richer picture of their work to document growth over time. Cambridge (2003) explained that reflection over time increases a student’s ability to make sense of a concrete experience.
Reflective e-portfolios can be challenged as a means of effective student learning, because reflection is a skill that is vaguely defined. Jenson (2011) studied the role of reflection in learning processes in a case study at the University of Minnesota Deluth. Her case study focused on the potential of prompting her first-year writing students over a period of eight fall semesters to write more critical reflection statements while developing their own reflective e-portfolios. During any given class period, Jenson posed “how” and “why” questions that encourage a deeper understanding of the given assignment. Her students received a rubric with these questions so that they could focus on her questions/prompts when writing their reflections outside of class. After studying the student reflections, Jenson reported that being intentional about classroom pedagogy helped elicit deeper reflection. Her goal in providing reflective questions helped students reach the point when they could begin to critically reflect on learning independently.
Jenson’s results also indicated that the use of student surveys and focused in-class discussions in conjunction with consistent e-portfolio assignments dramatically increased the length of student reflection statements written and fostered the depth of thinking shown in those statements. Her results demonstrated the effectiveness of using intentional instructional strategies for helping students develop self-regulation and critical reflection skills.
Reflective e-portfolios can be challenged as a means of effective student learning, because reflection is a skill that is vaguely defined. Jenson (2011) studied the role of reflection in learning processes in a case study at the University of Minnesota Deluth. Her case study focused on the potential of prompting her first-year writing students over a period of eight fall semesters to write more critical reflection statements while developing their own reflective e-portfolios. During any given class period, Jenson posed “how” and “why” questions that encourage a deeper understanding of the given assignment. Her students received a rubric with these questions so that they could focus on her questions/prompts when writing their reflections outside of class. After studying the student reflections, Jenson reported that being intentional about classroom pedagogy helped elicit deeper reflection. Her goal in providing reflective questions helped students reach the point when they could begin to critically reflect on learning independently.
Jenson’s results also indicated that the use of student surveys and focused in-class discussions in conjunction with consistent e-portfolio assignments dramatically increased the length of student reflection statements written and fostered the depth of thinking shown in those statements. Her results demonstrated the effectiveness of using intentional instructional strategies for helping students develop self-regulation and critical reflection skills.
Representational e-portfolios in education
Often considered “portfolios for marketing” (Barrett, 2005), representational e-portfolios are most commonly created to enrich student marketability, providing potential college admissions recruiters or potential employers assurance that the student has a firm grasp of current technology uses. These selective e-portfolios allow students to present a comprehensive overview of academic and extracurricular activities along with self-reflection and supporting evidence (artifacts) to a potential employer in creative and dynamic ways. Mason, Pegler, and Weller (2004) described representational e-portfolios as self-selected multimedia presentations of student work that offer a rich and textured view of student learning and development over the course of their education. Creating these e-portfolios can tie together career, community, personal, and educational goals. They argued that effective representational e-portfolios are created when students continually contribute to their e-portfolios throughout their “learning life” show academic growth and record of achievement.
Because these e-portfolios are typically voluntarily created, students can let their personalities show through using photography, video, music, or artwork. However, McAlpine (2005) cautioned that students might end up including sub-optimal work – such as the first draft of an essay or the reflection that the individual had missed the point of a science lesson. Students must be selective in their choices and confident in their power to control the narrative of their e-portfolio, or should seek guidance from an educator to screen their work.
Soon-to-be new college graduates are encouraged, especially, to develop representational e-portfolios as documentation of their professional skills and accomplishments in order to find employment. Whitworth et al. (2011) studied the perceptions of school administrators and teacher educators regarding the effective use of portfolios in the process of hiring new teachers in 2011. Advantages and disadvantages regarding portfolios as an effective tool in the hiring process were identified along with several barriers to their more extensive use. Specifically, findings of this study indicated that school administrators and teacher educators agree that there is value in using portfolios in the teacher hiring process. However, while both groups acknowledged the usefulness of portfolios, both saw them as only one of several tools to be used in teacher employment decisions.
E-portfolios can provide applicants the opportunity to distinguish themselves from the applicant field by the type and quality of their e-portfolio items, a great advantage. Applicants can also use the e-portfolio to highlight their strengths as a teacher. However, in sharp contrast to this strength of e-portfolio use, the accuracy of demonstrating the applicants' actual teaching skills and ability is a great disadvantage. Because applicants can self-select items for the portfolio and can structure and present it in a way that puts them in the best possible light, administrators in hiring roles doubt the confidence that can be placed in the e-portfolio.
Finally, Whitworth et al. (2011) identified time as a major barrier to the effective use of e-portfolios in the hiring process. Because school administrators typically have demanding schedules and responsibilities, the process of interviewing and hiring teachers can be limited by serious time constraints. This makes it very difficult for them to give more than a cursory review of applicants' e-portfolios. Thus, the time spent creating dynamic and thoughtful e-portfolios may be wasted.
Because these e-portfolios are typically voluntarily created, students can let their personalities show through using photography, video, music, or artwork. However, McAlpine (2005) cautioned that students might end up including sub-optimal work – such as the first draft of an essay or the reflection that the individual had missed the point of a science lesson. Students must be selective in their choices and confident in their power to control the narrative of their e-portfolio, or should seek guidance from an educator to screen their work.
Soon-to-be new college graduates are encouraged, especially, to develop representational e-portfolios as documentation of their professional skills and accomplishments in order to find employment. Whitworth et al. (2011) studied the perceptions of school administrators and teacher educators regarding the effective use of portfolios in the process of hiring new teachers in 2011. Advantages and disadvantages regarding portfolios as an effective tool in the hiring process were identified along with several barriers to their more extensive use. Specifically, findings of this study indicated that school administrators and teacher educators agree that there is value in using portfolios in the teacher hiring process. However, while both groups acknowledged the usefulness of portfolios, both saw them as only one of several tools to be used in teacher employment decisions.
E-portfolios can provide applicants the opportunity to distinguish themselves from the applicant field by the type and quality of their e-portfolio items, a great advantage. Applicants can also use the e-portfolio to highlight their strengths as a teacher. However, in sharp contrast to this strength of e-portfolio use, the accuracy of demonstrating the applicants' actual teaching skills and ability is a great disadvantage. Because applicants can self-select items for the portfolio and can structure and present it in a way that puts them in the best possible light, administrators in hiring roles doubt the confidence that can be placed in the e-portfolio.
Finally, Whitworth et al. (2011) identified time as a major barrier to the effective use of e-portfolios in the hiring process. Because school administrators typically have demanding schedules and responsibilities, the process of interviewing and hiring teachers can be limited by serious time constraints. This makes it very difficult for them to give more than a cursory review of applicants' e-portfolios. Thus, the time spent creating dynamic and thoughtful e-portfolios may be wasted.
conclusion
E-portfolios prepare students for career advancement in education and beyond. I have reviewed the use of e-portfolio in three areas: developmental, reflective, and representational. The studies exploring developmental indicate that students benefit from selecting powerful examples of their work and ideas to showcase skills. Reflective e-portfolios provide students with the opportunity to reflect and thus enable them to better understand their own learning, painting a richer picture of their work to document growth over time (Cambridge, 2003). And from the research on representative portfolios students can focus on what unique qualities set them apart from other job candidates.
Career and Technical Education (CTE):
Paving the Way for Employment in the 21st Century
Heidi Bird
Pepperdine University
Master of Arts in Learning Technology
In his 2012 State of the Union Address, President Obama laid out a blueprint for an economy “built to last.” In the address, the President stressed that in times of economic challenge, American employers need a workforce that is skilled, adaptable, creative, and equipped for success in the global marketplace. American students need a rigorous, better-tailored education to acquire the skills they need to compete and prosper (United States Department of Education [USDE] Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2012). Unfortunately, our education and training systems have failed too many of our students and businesses. While the United States ranks ninth in the world in the proportion of young adults (ages 25-34) enrolled in college, we have fallen to sixteenth in the world in proportion of certificates and degrees earned—lagging behind South Korea, Canada, Japan, and others (USDE, 2012).
President Obama set a new goal for the country in his 2012 State of the Union Address: by 2020, America would once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world. The President challenged every American to commit to at least one year of higher education or postsecondary training. Transforming career and technical education is essential to meeting this goal and represents a critical investment in our future (USDE, 2012).
Today, postsecondary education and training are prerequisites for jobs of the new economy. Too many of our businesses report that they are having trouble finding workers for skilled jobs in fields such as healthcare, technology, and advanced manufacturing, even in times like today when unemployment is declining but still high. Of the thirty fastest-growing occupations, about two-thirds require postsecondary education or training. Employers turn to Career and Technical Education programs as an important source of talent that they need to fill skilled positions within their companies (USDE, 2012).
In 2011, one in four young high school graduates was unemployed and over half were underemployed. In the past decade, recent high school graduates’ wages have fallen by 12 percent to just $19,400 annually in 2011, below the poverty threshold for a family of four (Carnevale, Jayasundera, Hanson, 2012). These statistics represent a structural change in the United States economy. In 1970, workers with a high school diploma or less represented 74 percent of the middle class. In 1973, nearly three out of four jobs required only a high school education or less. By 2020, two out of three jobs will require some postsecondary education or training (Carnevale et. al, 2012).
As employment opportunities that require only high school diplomas are disappearing, postsecondary education and on-the-job training have become avenues to finding middle class jobs. Although most emphasis for graduating high school students is placed on earning baccalaureate degrees, there has been an increasing interest in training and certification for “middle jobs.” These middle jobs require education and training beyond high school but less than a Bachelor’s degree, and they offer secure middle-class earnings.
The education and training programs that prepare Americans for these jobs are commonly referred to as career and technical education, or CTE (as defined by the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006). At the postsecondary level, CTE often results in an industry-based certification, a postsecondary certificate, or an Associate’s degree in a particular career or educational pathway. Postsecondary CTE can lead to relatively well-paid jobs that also offer further formal or informal lifelong learning and career advancement in the workplace (Carnevale et. al, 2012).
Although many associate vocational education with non-college bound, at-risk, or special needs students, new career/technical/vocational programs attract a wide range of students, preparing them with skills that increase worker productivity, skill transfer, job access, and job stability (Brown, 2003). CTE offers students opportunities for career awareness and preparation by providing them with the academic and technical knowledge and work-related skills necessary to be successful in post-secondary education, training, and employment. They offer opportunities for students to interact with community members, potential employers, and students and teachers who share similar career/vocational ambitions (Ball, Barton & Dyer, 2001).
In addition, Americans who pursue alternatives to the baccalaureate pathway are not necessarily forgoing a four-year college degree. For example, 28 percent of Americans who earned a Bachelor’s degree in 2009 started at a two-year community college. Americans who earn awards at community colleges are not precluded from earning a Bachelor’s degree later on. One out of every four Americans who earns a postsecondary certificate will continue on to earn a college degree. In addition, 17 percent of Bachelor’s degree holders earned an Associate’s degree beforehand (Carnevale et. al, 2012). Today’s CTE offers broader career pathways than did previous vocational programs. After a decade of academic-vocational integration and tech preparation, it is recognized that school-to-career programs emphasize a dual career path that leaves the option of college open while providing students with marketable skills (Kerka, 2000).
Career and technical education is also a strong option for working students. According to the National Center of Education Statistics, four out of five students work while enrolled in postsecondary institutions and two of those four are working full-time. On average, students are working 30 hours per week. More than 40 percent are older than 24; almost half are financially independent, and a quarter of all postsecondary students have children of their own. Because CTE is career-focused, it has a unique advantage for working learners by providing students with relevant knowledge and skills in order to secure positions that pay more than routine low-level jobs. In addition, students develop career-relevant skills and gain work experience that pays dividends as they advance their careers and save for further education and training.
President Obama set a new goal for the country in his 2012 State of the Union Address: by 2020, America would once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world. The President challenged every American to commit to at least one year of higher education or postsecondary training. Transforming career and technical education is essential to meeting this goal and represents a critical investment in our future (USDE, 2012).
Today, postsecondary education and training are prerequisites for jobs of the new economy. Too many of our businesses report that they are having trouble finding workers for skilled jobs in fields such as healthcare, technology, and advanced manufacturing, even in times like today when unemployment is declining but still high. Of the thirty fastest-growing occupations, about two-thirds require postsecondary education or training. Employers turn to Career and Technical Education programs as an important source of talent that they need to fill skilled positions within their companies (USDE, 2012).
In 2011, one in four young high school graduates was unemployed and over half were underemployed. In the past decade, recent high school graduates’ wages have fallen by 12 percent to just $19,400 annually in 2011, below the poverty threshold for a family of four (Carnevale, Jayasundera, Hanson, 2012). These statistics represent a structural change in the United States economy. In 1970, workers with a high school diploma or less represented 74 percent of the middle class. In 1973, nearly three out of four jobs required only a high school education or less. By 2020, two out of three jobs will require some postsecondary education or training (Carnevale et. al, 2012).
As employment opportunities that require only high school diplomas are disappearing, postsecondary education and on-the-job training have become avenues to finding middle class jobs. Although most emphasis for graduating high school students is placed on earning baccalaureate degrees, there has been an increasing interest in training and certification for “middle jobs.” These middle jobs require education and training beyond high school but less than a Bachelor’s degree, and they offer secure middle-class earnings.
The education and training programs that prepare Americans for these jobs are commonly referred to as career and technical education, or CTE (as defined by the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006). At the postsecondary level, CTE often results in an industry-based certification, a postsecondary certificate, or an Associate’s degree in a particular career or educational pathway. Postsecondary CTE can lead to relatively well-paid jobs that also offer further formal or informal lifelong learning and career advancement in the workplace (Carnevale et. al, 2012).
Although many associate vocational education with non-college bound, at-risk, or special needs students, new career/technical/vocational programs attract a wide range of students, preparing them with skills that increase worker productivity, skill transfer, job access, and job stability (Brown, 2003). CTE offers students opportunities for career awareness and preparation by providing them with the academic and technical knowledge and work-related skills necessary to be successful in post-secondary education, training, and employment. They offer opportunities for students to interact with community members, potential employers, and students and teachers who share similar career/vocational ambitions (Ball, Barton & Dyer, 2001).
In addition, Americans who pursue alternatives to the baccalaureate pathway are not necessarily forgoing a four-year college degree. For example, 28 percent of Americans who earned a Bachelor’s degree in 2009 started at a two-year community college. Americans who earn awards at community colleges are not precluded from earning a Bachelor’s degree later on. One out of every four Americans who earns a postsecondary certificate will continue on to earn a college degree. In addition, 17 percent of Bachelor’s degree holders earned an Associate’s degree beforehand (Carnevale et. al, 2012). Today’s CTE offers broader career pathways than did previous vocational programs. After a decade of academic-vocational integration and tech preparation, it is recognized that school-to-career programs emphasize a dual career path that leaves the option of college open while providing students with marketable skills (Kerka, 2000).
Career and technical education is also a strong option for working students. According to the National Center of Education Statistics, four out of five students work while enrolled in postsecondary institutions and two of those four are working full-time. On average, students are working 30 hours per week. More than 40 percent are older than 24; almost half are financially independent, and a quarter of all postsecondary students have children of their own. Because CTE is career-focused, it has a unique advantage for working learners by providing students with relevant knowledge and skills in order to secure positions that pay more than routine low-level jobs. In addition, students develop career-relevant skills and gain work experience that pays dividends as they advance their careers and save for further education and training.
conclusion
America’s ability to build a competitive workforce hinges on whether—and to what extent—educators and leaders can continue to develop innovative solutions for preparing all students for college and careers. The changing nature of skills required for existing jobs and the ongoing emergence and technological advances of new jobs demand more responsive program models and hands-on instructional approaches. Strengthening all aspects of our education system and supporting high-quality job-training opportunities are necessary to further our economic prosperity as a nation and to keep the American promise alive for all of our students (USDE, 2012).